How to Cite
Abstract
Chronic insomnia affects a significant proportion of young adults and elderly populations. Its effects are related not only social life but also the development of economy. Currently, scientists have revealed the sleep architecture and developed many strategies for treatment. Current pharmacological approaches focus primarily on Gamma Butyric Acid (GABA), the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. In addition, other receptors, such as serotonin, histamine, melatonin, are also considered. In this review, we focus on sleep disorder, the sleep architecture and current treatment methods for sleep disorder.
References
Akerstedt T, Fredlund P, Gillberg M, & Jansson B. A. (2002). Prospective study of fatal occupational accidents: relationship to sleeping difficulties and occupational factors. J Sleep Res. 11, 69-71.
Allison, C., & Pratt, J. A. (2003). Neuroadaptive processes in GABAergic and glutamatergic systems in benzodiazepine dependence. Pharmacol. Ther. 98, 171–195.
Ancoli-Israel, S. (2006). The impact and prevalence of chronic insomnia and other sleep disturbances associated with chronic illness. Am J Manag Care. 12, S221-S229.
Baker, F. C., Angara, C., Szymusiak, R., & McGinty, D. (2005). Persistence of sleep–temperature coupling after suprachiasmatic nuclei lesions in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 289, R827−R838.
Barker, M. J., Greenwood, K. M., Jackson, M. & Crowe, S. F. (2004). Cognitive effects of long-term benzodiazepine use: a meta-analysis. CNS Drugs 18, 37-48.
Bateson, A. N. (2004). The benzodiazepine site of the GABAA receptor: an old target with new potential? Sleep Med, 5(Suppl. 1), 9−15.
Borja, N. L., & Daniel, K. L. (2006). Ramelteon for the treatment of insomnia. Clin Ther. 28, 1540-
Brower, K. J. (2003). Insomnia, alcoholism and relapse. Sleep Med Rev. 7, 523-539.
Cajochen, C., Kräuchi, K., & Wirz-Justice, A. (2003). Role of melatonin in the regulation of human circadian rhythms and sleep. J Neuroendocrinol. 15, 432-437.
Chilcott, L. A., & Shapio, M. (1996). The socioeconomic impact of insomnia: an overview. Pharmacoeconomics. 10, 1-14.
Cho, Y.W., Shin, W. C., Yun, C. H., Hong, S. B., Kim, J. H., & Earley, C. J. (2009). Epidemiology of Insomnia in Korean Adults: Prevalence and Associated Factors. J. Clin. Neurol. 5, 20-23.
Cho, S., & Kim, S. (2013). Neuropsychopharmacological Properties of Marine Plants. Marine pharmacognosy trends and applications (pp:841-860). Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis.
Chouinard, G. (2004). Issues in the clinical use of benzodiazepines: potency, withdrawal, and rebound. J Clin Psychiatry. 65, Suppl 5, 7-12.
Dollins, A., Zhdanova, I. V., Wurtman, R. J., et al. (1994). Effect of inducing nocturnal serum melatonin concentrations in daytime on sleep, mood, body temperature and performance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91, 1824–1828.
Ebert, B., Wafford, K.A., & Deacon, S. (2006). Treating insomnia: current and investigational pharmacological approaches. Pharmacol Ther 112, 612-629.
Erman, M. K. (2001). Sleep architecture and its relationship to insomnia. J Clin Psychiatry 62(Suppl. 10), 9−17.
Gottlieb, D. J., Punjabi, N.M., Newman, A.B., et al. (2005). Association of sleep time with diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance. Arch Intern Med. 165, 863-867.
Graw, P., Werth, E., Krauchi, K., et al. (2001). Early morning melatonin administration impairs
psychomotor vigilance. Behav Brain Res. 21, 167–172.
Griffiths, R., & Johnson, M. (2005). Relative abuse liability of hypnotic drugs: a conceptual framework and algorithm for differentiating among compounds. J Clin Psychiatry. 66, 31-41.
Hohagen, F., Käppler, C., Schramm, E., Riemann, D., Weyerer, S., & Berger, M. (1994). Sleep onset insomnia, sleep maintaining insomnia and insomnia withearly morning awakening: temporal stability of subtypes in a longitudinalstudy on general practice attenders. Sleep 17, 551-554.
Ianas, O., Manda, D., Caˆmpean, D., et al. (1999). Effects of melatonin and its relation to the hypothalamichypophyseal-gonadal axis. Adv Exp Med Biol. 460, 321-328.
Jacob, T.C., Moss, S.J., & Jurd, R. (2009). GABAA receptor trafficking and its role in the dynamic modulation of neuronal inhibition. Nat Rev Neurosci. 9: 331-343.
Katz, D.A., & McHorney C.A. (1998). Clinical correlates of insomnia in patients with chronic illness. Arch Intern Med. 158, 1099-1107.
Koppel, C., Tenczer, J., & Ibe, K. (1987). Poisoning with overthe- counter doxylamine preparations: an evaluation of 109 cases. Hum Toxicol. 6, 355–359.
Kryger, M., Wang-Weigand, S., & Roth, T (2007). Safety of ramelteon in individuals with mild to moderate obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath 11, 159–164.
Krystal AD. (2005). The effect of insomnia definitions, terminology, and classifications on clinical practice. J Am Geriatr Soc. 53, S258-S263.
Krystal, A. D. (2009). A compendium of placebo-controlled trials of the risks/benefits of pharmacological treatments for insomnia: the empirical basis for US clinical practice. Sleep Med Rev. 13, 265.
Kudo, Y. & Kurihara, M (1990). Clinical evaluation of diphenhydramine hydrochloride for the treatment of insomnia in psychiatric patients: a double-blind study. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 30, 1041–1048.
Leigh, T.J., Hindmarch, I., Bird, H.A., & Wright, V. (1988). Comparison of sleep in osteoarthritic patients and age and sex matched healthy controls. Ann Rheum Dis. 47, 40-42.
Mendelson, W. B., Roth, T., Cassella, J., Roehrs, T., Walsh, J. K., Woods, J. H., et al. (2004). The treatment of chronic insomnia: drug indications, chronic use and abuse liability. Summary of a 2001 New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit meeting symposium. Sleep Med Rev 8, 7−17.
Molher, H, Fritschy, J. M., & Rudolph, U. (2002). A new benzodiazepine pharmacology. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 300: 2-8.
Molher, H. (2006). GABAA receptor diversity and pharmacology. Cell tissue Res 326: 505-516.
Nakata, A., Ikeda, T., Takahashi, M., et al. (2005). Sleep-related risk of occupational injuries in Japanese small and medium-scale enterprises. Ind Health. 43, 89-97.
Pandi-Perumal, S.R., Verster, J.C., Kayumov, L., et al. (2006). Sleep disorders, sleepiness and traffic safety: a public health menace. Braz J Med Biol Res. 39, 863-871.
Partonen, T. (1999). Melatonin-dependent infertility. Med Hypotheses 52, 269-270.
Pirker, S., Schwarzer, C., Wiesenthaler, A., Sieghart, W., & Sperk, G. (2000). GABAA receptors: immunocytochemical distribution of 13 subunits in the adult rat brain. Neuroscience 101, 815-850.
Rechtschaffen, A., & Kales, A. (1968). A manual of standardized terminology, techniques and scoring system for sleep stages in human subjects. National Institute of Health Publ. 204: Washington D.C.
Richardson, G. S., & Roth T. J. (2001). Future directions in the management of insomnia. Clin Psychiatry. 62, 39-45.
Richey, S., Krystal, A. (2011). Pharmacological advances in the treatment of insomnia. Curr Pharm Des. 17, 1471–1475.
Rogers, N. L., Szuba, M. P., Staab, J. P., Evans, D. L., & Dinges, D. F. (2001). Neuroimmunologic aspects of sleep and sleep loss. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 6, 295−307.
Roth T. (2009). Comorbid insomnia: current directions and future challenges. Am J Manag Care. 15, S6-S13.
Sanna Sanna, E., Busonero, F., Talani, G., et al. (2002). Comparison of the effects of zaleplon, zolpidem, and triazolam at various GABA(A) receptor subtypes. Eur J Pharmacol. 451, 103-110.
Sateia, M. J., & Nowell, P. D. (2004). Insomnia. Lancet 364, 1959−1973.
Sieghart W, & Sperk G. (2002). Subunit composition, distribution and function of GABA(A) receptor subtypes. Curr Top Med Chem. 2, 795-816.
Sieghart, W., Fuchs, K., Tretter, V., Ebert, V., Jechlinger, M., Hoger, H., et al. (1999). Structure and subunit composition of GABA(A) receptors. Neurochem In.t 34, 379−385.
Smith, A.J., & Simpson, P.B. (2003). Methodological approaches for the study of GABAA receptor pharmacology and functional responses. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 377, 843-851.
Smith, S., Sullivan, K., Hopkins, W., & Douglas, J. (2004). Frequency of insomnia report in patients with obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS). Sleep Med. 5, 449-456.
Stephenson, F.A. (1995). The GABAA receptors. Biochem J. 310, 1-9.
Steriade, M. (2004). Slow-wave sleep: serotonin, neuronal plasticity, and seizures. Arch Ital Biol. 142, 359−367.
Taylor, D. J., Mallory, L. J., Lichstein, K. L., Durrence, H. H., Riedel, B. W., & Bush, A. J. (2007) Comorbidity of chronic insomnia with medical problems. Sleep. 30, 213-218.
Van Cauter, E., & Knutson, K. L. (2008). Sleep and the epidemic of obesity in children and adults. Eur J Endocrinol. 159, S59-S66.
Wafford, K. A., & Ebert, B. (2008) Emerging anti-insomnia drugs: tackling sleeplessness and the quality of wake time. Nat Rev Drugs Dis 7, 531-540.
Walker, M. P. (2005). A refined model of sleep and the time course of memory formation. Behav Brain Sci. 28, 51−104.
Whiting, P. J., Bonnert, T. P., McKernan, R. M., Farrar, S., Le Bourdelles, B., Heavens, R. P., et al. (1999). Molecular and functional diversity of the expanding GABA-A receptor gene family. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 868, 645−653.
Winokur, A., Gary, K. A., Rodner, S., Rae-Red, C., Fernando, A. T., & Szuba, M. P. (2001). Depression, sleep physiology, and antidepressant drugs. Depress Anxiety. 14, 19-28.